Fig. 1

Gene expression modulation tools classified according to their mechanisms. a Tools for transcriptional modulation. Strategies for promoter design, transcription factor design, dCas9-based modulation, and anti-termination using sRNA are shown. b Tools for translational modulation. Strategies for RBS design, riboswitch-based modulation, dCas13-based gene repression or activation, and synthetic sRNA-based gene repression are shown. c Other tools for gene expression modulation. Strategies for DNA methylation-based modulation and protein degradation-based modulation are shown. Abbreviations are: 5’UTR, 5’ untranslated region; crRNA, CRISPR RNA; CRISPRa, CRISPR activation; CRISPRi, CRISPR interference; IF3, translation initiation factor 3; MTase, methyltransferase; ORF, open reading frame; PDT, protein degradation tag; RBS, ribosome-binding site; RNAP, RNA polymerase; sRNA, small RNA; TF, transcription factor